Vol 4, Issue 4, 2023 (333-346)
http://journal.unpad.ac.id/idjp
*Corresponding author,
e-mail : y.herdiana@unpad.ac.id (Y. Herdiana)
https://doi.org/10.24198/idjp.v4i3.44274
© 2023 Y. Herdiana et al
Drug Delivery System in Feline
Yedi Herdiana1,2*, Gofarana Wilar2,3, Ferry Ferdiansyah Sofian4, Annisa Dyah
Pitaloka4, Yasinta Nurhijriah4, Rayhan Zarra Safira4, Annisa Siti Salsabila4,
Maziyatunisa Z4
1 Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universitas Padjadjaran, Sumedang 45363, Indonesia.
2 Veterinary Center Development Group, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran,
Sumedang 45363, Indonesia.
3 Department of Pharmacology and clinical pharmacy, Fakulty of Pharmacy, Universitas
Padjadjaran Sumedang 45363, Indonesia.
4 Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran
Submitted : 05/01/2023, Revised : 03/02/ 2023,, Accepted : 14/03/2023, Published : 16/08/2023
Abstract
The drug delivery system is an attractive field of study since it has several
applications in veterinary and human medicine. In the realm of veterinary medicine,
the discovery of new routes of administration or new delivery systems to regulate
the release of medications is of great importance. Due to the high number of animals
and the special issues related to the administration of drugs and their market
potential is very large, it is necessary to modify the dosage form to produce an
effective and practicable preparation. Cats are the most popular pet in the world,
outnumbering dogs by a ratio of three to one. It is vital to understand the prevalent
illness patterns and limits of traditional delivery systems to establish appropriate
dosage forms for cats. We believe this publication will be of interest to veterinarians
and pharmaceutical scientists working in the field.
Keywords: Drug delivery system, cats, veterinary medicine, pharmacist
1. Introduction
In veterinary medicine, most drug
formulations are of the conventional variety
where some of the problems is failure to
deliver and deposit the drug molecule at the
desired place [1,2]. Due to the diversity of
animal species, body systems, and
requirements, veterinary equipment's
nature and physical structure can be shaped
in several ways. Improvement of animal
welfare (the reduction of stress from
restraints and handling required for more
frequent dosing of conventional
formulations), caregiver or veterinarian
convenience, and a reduction in the cost of
care are all potential benefits of developing
a controlled and/or prolonged-release
system for the veterinary field [3]. In
addition, these dosage forms help decrease
human exposure to potentially hazardous
substances used in veterinary medicine.
Nevertheless, numerous obstacles persist in
the veterinary field, including restricted
resources, highly competitive product
pricing, getting registration, especially
regarding human food safety and
environmental safety, and occasionally a
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mismatch between projected and actual
market needs [4].
Domestic cats are popular companion
animals with various lifestyles [5,6] .
Felidae includes cats, is animal with 50-60
cm long, 25-28 cm tall, weighs 3-6 kg
(male) and 2-4.5 kg (female), and lives 10-
20 years. Purebred cats include the Persian
Angora, Siamese, Manx, and Sphinx, are
bred as pets. Only 1% of cats worldwide are
purebred; the rest are wild or domestic cats
with mixed breeds. Cats have considerable
economic worth, especially for breeders
and cat lovers. Cats may also improve
human mental health. Caring for a cat
means giving it enough food, water, and
balanced nutrition. Uncared-for cats can
contract diseases and spread them to
humans. Cats can get sick and delaying
medical attention can be deadly. It's
important for cat owners to seek prompt
veterinary care to ensure their pet receives
the best possible treatment and lives a
healthy life. Most cat owners address
health problems and diseases themselves
due to a lack of professionals and difficulty
connecting directly with them. A lack of
knowledge about cat diseases makes it
difficult for owners to handle and medicate
sick cats, which can exacerbate the illness.
Cat diseases are caused by parasites,
protozoa, germs, and other factors [7,8].
In human and veterinary medicine,
most medications and formulations are
given as elixirs, infusions, capsules, and
aqueous or oil-based injections [6].
Because of the harmful consequences of
potent or dangerous ingredients,
medications must be administered with
caution. Veterinary medicine
administration systems differ from human
medication distribution systems. The nature
and shape of veterinary equipment are
adaptable due to the wide range of animal
species, body systems, and needs.
Pharmacists must provide
scientific explanation when selling
pharmaceuticals, and veterinarians have a
similar responsibility to ensure the integrity
of any medical product they deliver to
patients. Failing to do so can pose a risk to
the health and safety of patients, pet
owners, and veterinarians. [9]. Novel
formulation improvements, including
carrier technologies, continuous-release
devices, and site-directed formulations,
could be employed to direct or extend
animal bioavailability. Suitable
technologies are required for fast, safe,
efficient, and cost-effective drug delivery.
This review analize illness patterns,
conventional drug delivery, and novel
dosage form design for veterinary
application.
2. Common pattern of disease in
Canine
These environmental factors and
direct contact with pathogens can weaken a
cat's immune system and make them more
susceptible to a variety of illnesses. [10,11].
Diseases that affect cats are typically
infectious or contagious. The following are
some common diseases in cats.
2.1 Feline paleukopenia
Feline panleukopenia is a disease
caused by the Feline Panleukopenia Virus
(FPV), a member of the Parvoviridae
family. Clinical symptoms vary from
subclinical infection to acute, characterized
by sudden death. Feline panleukopenia
disease refers to low white blood cells in a
cat's body. Infected cats die from
complications from secondary bacterial
infection, sepsis, dehydration, and
disseminated intravasal coagulopathy
(DIC). The level of morbidity and mortality
due to feline panleukopenia is quite high,
especially in young cats under 12 weeks of
age. Acute feline panleukopenia has a
mortality rate of 25-90% to 100% in acute
infections [12,13].
2.2 Feline Calicivirus (FCV)
Feline calicivirus is a highly
contagious pathogen. FCV infection can
cause several clinical problems in
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asymptomatic carriers. Oral ulcers,
especially on the tongue and palate, and
mild upper respiratory symptoms are
typical. This disease is highly contagious,
often fatal and results in high mortality
[14,15]. This disease can attack young and
adult cats, even though they have been
vaccinated. FCV infection can cause severe
pneumonia in kittens and rarely in adults.
FCV-infected cats develop edema and
ulcers on the head, limbs, soles of the feet,
and inguinal area. FCV infection may
produce subcutaneous edema with
localized fat necrosis, pancreatitis with
peripancreatic fat necrosis, DIC, intestinal
crypt necrosis, and interstitial pneumonia
[15,16].
2.3 Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP)
Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) is
a viral infection in cats with clinical signs
of ascites occurring in an effusive form.
Ascites are a common systemic condition
characterized by abdominal distention due
to fluid accumulation. These clinical signs
are reported to be associated with chronic
liver disease, congestive heart failure,
nephritic syndrome, malnutrition,
ancylostomiasis, low blood protein levels,
especially albumin, various types of
neoplasms, as well as increased renal
sodium-sodium ion retention, FIP has high
morbidity and mortality rate. In cats and is
fatal in cats who are infected or have certain
clinical signs and symptoms. More cases
were reported in male and young cats under
3 years old [1,17].
2.4 Scabies (scabies)
Scabies is a cat skin disease caused
by scabies/Sarcoptes mites (a type of flea).
Dogs and cats are both susceptible to
scabies. The parasite species that most
often targets dogs (Sarcoptes scabei canis)
is different from the species that tend to
target cats (Notoedres cati). However, both
species come from the same family of
Sarcoptic mites. Scabies in cats is usually
caused by Notoedres cati, which is a very
small mite (0.2 – 0.4 mm) and can only be
seen with a microscope or magnifying glass
[18,19]
Scabies mites are transferred
between cats via physical touch, and all cats
exposed to Notoedres mites develop
symptoms. Mite-infested cats commonly
develop scabies a few weeks to a month
later. Mites burrow between hair follicles,
causing itching and other skin disorders.
Mites lay 3-4 eggs daily in their burrows.
After 4-5 days, the eggs hatch and the
larvae build a hole. Mites will molt, grow,
dig additional skin tunnels, and mature in
15 days [20,21].
2.5 Dermatophytosis (Ringworm)
Dermatophytosis is a skin disease
caused by a fungus that can cause hair loss
in cats. Dermatophytosis is excessive
keratinization found on the skin's outermost
surface (epidermis), including nails and
hair. Dermatophytosis can be caused by
infection with fungi/fungi that belong to the
dermatophyte genus, including
Microsporum, Trichophyton, and
Epidermophyton [22]. The incidence of
dermatophytosis by M. canis in cats was
reported to be higher than in dogs. The
study also reported that 82% of 89 positive
cat samples had dermatophytosis due to M.
canis. Clinical symptoms in animals with
dermatophytosis are alopecia, erythema,
papules, pustules, and scaly and crusty.
Inflammation at the edges of the lesions
found on the face and trunk is a classic type
of lesion often found [23,24].
2.6 Ankylostomiasis
Ankylostomiasis is a disease caused
by infection with the worm Ancylostoma
spp., a parasite that most often attacks pets
such as cats. Clinical symptoms in cats
infected with ankylostomyosis are
diarrhoea, sometimes accompanied by
blood. At 10-25 days after infection, cats
start to lose blood which can cause cats to
suffer from anaemia, hypoproteinemia,
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intestinal malabsorption and decreased
immunity [25,26].
2.7 Toxocariasis
Toxocariasis is a disease caused by
worms from the genus Toxocara, namely T.
vitulorum, which attacks cattle. T. canis,
which attacks dogs, and T. cati, which
attacks cats. Infected cats eat and drink L2
embryonated eggs. Infected mothers' worm
larvae move to their mammary glands,
infecting kittens via milk. Paratenic hosts
may also infect cats with T. cati. [27,28].
2.8 Diabetes Mellitus
Cats may also get metabolic
illnesses like diabetes mellitus. DM affects
the pancreas, which generates insulin and
glucagon. DM is a chronic condition caused
by the pancreas' failure to generate enough
insulin, causing hyperglycemia and glucose
intolerance. Obesity, lack of activity, and
aging are major DM triggers. Older cats
(10-13 years), castrated male cats, obesity,
and lack of activity increase DM risk.
Genetic factors also raise DM risk;
Burmese cats are five times more at risk
than other cats [29–31].
2.9 Cancer
Cancer is a common and major
killer of household animals. Conservative
estimates predict that one in ten dogs and
cats will acquire a tumour. Veterinary
cancer registers have been brief and erratic
since 1940. [32]. Cats die from cancer.
Understanding human oncogenes are
critical for diagnostics, prognostics, and
targeted therapies. [33].
Intestinal adenocarcinoma is the
second most common cat cancer after
lymphoma. 70% of colon cancers were
studied. 55–76% of tumours metastasize
locally and distantly. The main treatment is
surgery with or without chemotherapy. Past
retrospective research on prognostic
variables and survival durations includes
very small cat populations. However,
results are widely varied, and extended life
spans are typically recorded in systemic
illness. Intestinal adenocarcinoma is the
second most common cat cancer after
lymphoma. 70% of colon cancers were
studied. 55–76% of tumours metastasize
locally and distantly. The main treatment is
surgery with or without chemotherapy.
Existing retrospective research on
prognostic variables and life durations
include small cat populations, but results
are widely heterogeneous, and extended
survival spans are typically reported in the
setting of systemic illness [34].
3. Drug Dosage Form Design
Consideration
Treating feline patients can be
challenging due to differences in
medication metabolism compared to other
animals, resulting in a lack of adequate
safety and dosage optimization trials for
cats. Additionally, there are comparatively
few licensed medications for cats, requiring
reformulation of medications intended for
larger animals, and delivery of medication
to many cats can be difficult.
3.1 Drug metabolism in cats
Cats have a unique drug metabolism
that is different from both humans and
dogs, making it challenging to determine
appropriate dosages for feline patients. In
some cases, cat dosages are extrapolated
from those used in other species. However,
cats have poor glucuronidation of some
xenobiotics due to a nonfunctional
UGT1A6 pseudogene, which can result in
insufficient drug metabolism for certain
medications. This information is important
for veterinarians to consider when
prescribing medications for cats, as
improper dosing can have negative
consequences for feline health.
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Table 1. Glucuronidation Capacity of Xenobiotics in Cats
3.2 Age-related treatment in cats
The neonatal period in cats and dogs
is four weeks postpartum, while the
pediatric period is 12 weeks. However,
pharmacological research in neonate cats is
scarce, which makes suggestions
challenging. There are physiological
variations between neonates and adults in
humans, dogs, rats, and cats that need to be
considered when prescribing medication to
young animals.
Newborn kittens' oral absorption
may differ from adult cats'. Immature
gastric parietal cells in neonates, such as
pups up to 5 weeks old, cause a high
stomach pH. High stomach pH reduces the
bioavailability of acid-dependent
medications, including ketoconazole,
itraconazole, and iron supplements.
Therefore, medications that require an
acidic environment for proper absorption
may not be as effective in neonatal kittens.
Neonatal hepatic cytochrome P450
activity is lower than in 7-week-old dogs.
This may delay neonatal medication
clearance. Newborn kittens may have
extended half-lives for medications such as
lidocaine and theophylline. However, by
the time most cats receive their first
immunization, their livers have developed
and become better equipped to metabolize
medications.
Kittens have a low glomerular
filtration rate (GFR) until they are 9 weeks
old. Before this age, kittens may be at risk
of fluid overload due to poor solute and
water excretion, which can increase the risk
of medication toxicity, such as
aminoglycosides. Therefore,
aminoglycosides should be avoided in
kittens.
The elderly, both cats and humans,
are at higher risk of adverse medication
responses than younger adults. Dosing
mistakes and
Compounds
UGT Enzyme
Responsible for
Humans
Glucuronidation in
Cats
Due to Clinical and
Dosage in Cats
Acetaminophen
UGT1A6 (cat
pseudogen)
Hepatic activity is ten
times lower in cats than
in dogs and humans
Three to four times less
acetaminophen is
poisonous to cats (60
mg/kg) than to dogs (200
mg/kg).
Morphine
UGT2B7 in humans
No glucuronide
metabolites in dogs in
vivo Not evaluated in
cats
Like dogs, the elimination
half-life of morphine in
cats is 1-1.5 hours (1.2
hours).
Chloramphenicol
UGT2B7
Not directly evaluated
in cats
Cats have a somewhat
longer elimination half-
life (4-8 hours) than dogs
(1.1-5 hours)
Aspirin
Some isoforms
(UGT1A6) have
high affinity)
Not directly evaluated
in cats
Cats have a long
elimination half-life (22
hours) than dogs (5-6
hours) Four times less
often in cats than in
canines
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pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic
variables contribute to some of these
concerns. Geriatric cats have achieved 75%
of their anticipated lifespan, and changes in
renal function, hepatic blood flow, body
composition, and physiological reactions
occur in elderly cats and humans. Age-
related renal insufficiency affects geriatric
medication dosing the most. Renal
insufficiency in elderly cats is likely to be
considerable and may impede medication
elimination, leading to increased toxicity.
Enrofloxacin, given at 5 mg/kg daily, may
cause retinal toxicity in older cats, and the
dose-dependent ocular toxicity may be
related to impaired renal clearance in
elderly cats..
3.3 Behavioral problem
Small animal veterinarians are often
the first point of contact for owners seeking
help with behavioural issues in their pets.
However, the evaluation and management
of behavioural disorders may differ
between general veterinary practices and
specialized behavioural referral centers.
For instance, separation anxiety in dogs and
some types of urine marking in cats may be
attributed to anxiety or stress.
Epidemiological studies conducted
from the perspective of veterinary
practitioners can help to identify and
prioritize the most common behavioural
concerns among pet owners. This
information can be used to develop
effective preventative and educational
programs that aim to reduce pet
abandonment and euthanasia. It is
important to note that behavioural issues in
pets can have complex underlying causes,
and a thorough assessment by a veterinarian
or animal behaviourist may be necessary to
achieve a successful outcome. [35].
3.4 Conventional Dosage Form
Pharmaceutical dosage forms comprise
active and inactive ingredients (Fig.1).
Product quality and performance depend on
the API, excipients, and manufacturing
method. API is blended with binders,
fillers, flavours, bulking agents,
preservatives, and antioxidants. Before
being formulated, these materials may be
dried, processed, mixed, compressed, and
granulated.
Fig 1. Common veterinary dosage forms as a function of route of administration
Drug delivery via the oral route is
the most common and natural way of
administering medication to pets such as
dogs and cats. However, it can be
challenging to ensure that pets consume
their medication, which can lead to
ineffective treatment. Therefore, several
strategies are employed to increase
compliance, including the use of flavoured
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tablets or liquid formulations that are more
palatable to pets.
In contrast, drug delivery systems
via the parenteral route have higher
bioavailability than the oral route and are
essential for administering peptides and
proteins. However, the parenteral route
requires veterinary expertise and can lead to
local irritation or inflammation at the
injection site.
Topical drug delivery systems such
as creams, ointments, and powders are ideal
for local effects or killing parasites on the
skin. These preparations are less invasive
and can be used to administer local
anaesthetics, but their efficacy may depend
on factors such as skin type and hair
density. Transdermal drug delivery
has gained popularity in veterinary
medicine due to its advantages over oral
and parenteral routes. Transdermal
administration is often well-tolerated, has a
lower risk of gastrointestinal irritation and
drug degradation in the liver and gut, and
may have a more extended duration of
action without side effects. However,
transdermal drug delivery may not be
appropriate for all medications, as some
may irritate the skin or have poor
absorption.
Transmucosal drug administration
is another method that has gained attention
in recent years. This method involves the
administration of medication via mucosal
membranes, such as those in the mouth,
nose, or rectum. This route offers the
advantage of avoiding first-pass effects,
liver metabolism, and stomach discomfort.
However, the potential for irritation limits
the use of transmucosal drug delivery for
some medications.
The choice of drug delivery system
depends on several factors, including the
type of medication, the pet's condition, and
the owner's willingness to administer the
drug. It is essential to consider the risks and
benefits of each method and to work closely
with a veterinarian to ensure optimal
treatment outcomes for pets.
4. New Drug Delivery System
The anatomical and physiological
variations among different animal species
can result in drug concentrations that fall
outside the therapeutic range, which can
ultimately cause treatment failure. To
address this issue, novel drug delivery
systems are being developed in veterinary
medicine to adjust the drug's bioavailability
for each animal, decrease the number of
doses needed, minimize stress for owners,
and reduce the overall duration of
treatment. [36]. In addition, the
development of drug delivery systems
specific to different animals and their
unique physiological characteristics can
improve the effectiveness and safety of
drug administration. For example,
transdermal drug delivery may be a suitable
alternative for cats who are difficult to
medicate orally or intravenously, but it may
not be appropriate for other animals due to
differences in skin thickness and
permeability. By considering the
anatomical and physiological differences
between animals and developing tailored
drug delivery systems, veterinary
pharmaceutical product innovation can
improve the overall health and well-being
of animals. [37].
4.1 Oral Modified-release Drug-
delivery Systems
The preferred method for
administering veterinary medications is
oral delivery due to its low cost, non-
invasive nature, minimal risk of infection,
and painlessness. However, challenges
exist in achieving stress-free administration
and ensuring reliable bioavailability of the
medication. In oral delivery, the drug is
released from the formulation, dissolved in
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gastrointestinal fluids, and absorbed into
the body. Drug release from dose forms can
be standard or customized to optimize drug
delivery. .
The key pharmacoeconomic
concepts behind human-modified release
medication delivery systems are: [17]:
1. Clinical effectiveness.
2. Reduced dosing's effectiveness
(i.e.improved patient
compliance).
3. Patient management (nursing
or outpatient visits for repeat
medicine delivery) and medical
care savings (e.g. handling of
adverse events or side effects).
Animal drug-delivery
systems are developed to reduce
animal handling, save costs, and
minimize animal stress, especially
in farmed animals. [14]. Consumer
convenience and compliance are
important drives for companion
animals.
Most oral modified-release
dose formulations fall into one of
these categories [21]:
1. 1. Matrix: This drug delivery
system involves embedding the
drug within a polymer matrix,
which gradually releases the
drug as it breaks down in the
gastrointestinal tract. However,
the rate of drug release may be
impacted by factors such as
food and pH levels in the
gastrointestinal tract.Reservoir
system: A rate-limiting
membrane surrounds the drug
core in the dosage form. Food
and GI pH may affect drug
release from this system.
2. Osmotic system: Drug
distribution uses osmotic
pressure. This happens
regardless of pH or other
physiological conditions. This
device can dispense drugs at a
predetermined rate.
Another dosage form for
modified oral release is gastric
retention devices. Devices include:
• Floating systems:
Multiparticulate drug-
delivery methods like floating
microspheres exhibit gastric
retention for up to 12 h in
humans. The medicine is
slowly delivered from the
microsphere's hollow inner
core into the stomach. The
stomach is emptied after drug
release. Most studies show
that retention of these systems
is highly impacted by prandial
state and that the device
transits faster when taken
fasting vs fed.
• Swelling system: The device
swells and cannot leave via
the pylorus. The dosage form
is thus kept in the stomach.
These systems' swelling rate
and mechanical strength are
crucial. Devices must be
completely inflated before
cleaning waves (i.e., achieve
full swelling within 20 min or
less). Although reliant on
food, these systems may be
kept in fed dogs' stomachs for
more than 24 h.
• Bioadhesive systems: The
technology delivers the
medicine to a particular spot
in the GI tract.
• Modified shape systems:
Nondisintegrating polyethene
or Silastic elastomer forms.
Physiologically, the device's
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size, shape, or flexibility
keeps it in the stomach.
• High-density formulations:
The tool dips in the stomach,
slowing gastric emptying.
Some of these technologies
might be used to give drugs to tiny
animals. However, differences in
stomach emptying rates across
species could make this difficult.
4.2 Ophthalmic Modified-release
Drug-delivery Systems
Traditional eye drops for
medication delivery are not very effective
due to the clearance processes, which result
in the loss of most of the dose. To improve
ocular medication absorption, innovative
topical drug delivery technologies are being
developed. These technologies include the
use of solubility enhancers to raise drug
concentrations in formulations, improving
bioavailability, and the development of
formulations that resist clearance, allowing
more time for accumulation in ocular
tissue. Additionally, drug penetration
enhancers can be added to the formulation.
Advanced drug delivery methods such as
contact lenses, in situ gels, microemulsions,
niosomes, liposomes, implants,
microspheres, and micelles can allow for
controlled release, reducing dosage
frequency and the need for intrusive
therapy, making it an effective option for
chronic eye problems. (Fig,2).
In veterinary medicine, treating eye
diseases in animals is challenging due to
their different eye structures and
physiology, cost, application challenges for
owners, and flickering and lacrimation
during administration that limits medicine
absorption. Modified release ocular drug
delivery methods, such as hydrogels or
ointments, extend drug release, increase
formulation contact, and reduce
administrations. Mucoadhesives like gellan
gum, poloxamers, cellulose, chitosan, and
alginate enhance contact with the ocular
surface, leading to extended ocular surface
residency. However, blurred eyesight,
inflamed lacrimal glands, and crusty
eyelids are some of the disadvantages of
using these methods.
(Silva, 2021).
Fig 2. Comparison of conventional drug delivery and novel drug delivery system
Hydrogels are used to treat dry eyes
in dogs and cats. This disease causes pain, visual impairments, tear film instability,
and ocular surface damage. The treatment
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uses 0.2% to 2% cyclosporine or 0.3%
tacrolimus hydrogel. Artificial tears are
made from many mimetic polymers such
cellulose (Lacril®), hydroxypropyl guar
(Sistan®), croscarmellose sodium (fresh-
tear®, Lakrifilm®), polyvinyl alcohol
(Tears® liquid film, Neo-Tears®), and
hyaluronate (Hy-Drop®, Hylo-care®)
[38].
4.3 Subcutaneous and Topical
Modified-release Drug-delivery
Systems
Drugs used against ectoparasites are the
most frequently controlled or sustained
release formulations, delivered
subcutaneously or topically (fig. 3). Fleas,
ticks, and ticks continually infest animals.
Fipronil, methoprene, ivermectin, and
permethrin treat and prevent ectoparasite
infections. Ivermectin (IVM) has the most
publications. IVM, a semisynthetic
derivative of avermectin B1, manages
internal and external parasites. Oral,
topical, or subcutaneous administration is
possible. Subcutaneous treatment is more
effective than oral and topical in sheep,
cattle, and goats; regarding the topical
method, ivermectin sustain-release
varnish's efficacy (SRV). The varnish
contains IVM, amino methacrylate
copolymer, and ethanol. Polymer and IVM
remain when the varnish dries. Ivermectin's
slow release reduces handling and medicine
[38]
Fig 3.Various subcutan control release delivery system
4.4 Collars
Collars have been developed for
preventing ticks, parasites, and mosquitoes
in animals. The original collar technology
by Shell involved a mix of vinyl resin and
dichlorvos for tick prevention. Other drugs
such as naled, sendran, rabon carbamate,
and drug combinations have been added to
these collars. The collar provides long-term
delivery of up to 6 months and is easy to
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administer to minimize animal stress.
However, there are some downsides,
including the delivery of large doses at the
beginning, potential toxicity to animals, no
indication of excess dosage, and potential
skin sensitivities in animals. The combined
medicament is included in the polymer
matrix for this collar technology, with PVC,
polyurethane, and ethylene-vinyl acetate
being used for making the collars [38,39].
4.5 Injectable Modified-release
Drug-delivery Systems
Many pet owners do not treat their pets
orally, making injectable controlled release
a preferred option. This is particularly
challenging for cats, who may go without
food for days. Infections often require
multiple days of treatment. Injectable
pharmaceuticals must meet high-quality
standards. Various formulations, such as
dispersions, aqueous solutions, oily
injections, suspensions, sediment-in-place
suspensions, microspheres, and durable
nanoparticles have been developed for
injectable administration to improve
targeted therapy, reduce dosage, and
increase bioavailability while maintaining
animal welfare [38,40].
5. Conclusion
The drug delivery route system
consists of oral, topical (transdermal,
ocular), and parenteral (subcutaneous,
intravenous, intramuscular). Things that
need to be considered in determining the
route of drug delivery in animals are
gender, metabolic system, animal anatomy
and physiology, and drug characteristics.
New drug delivery systems in the
veterinary field will be beneficial to adjust
the bioavailability of drugs for specific
animals, thus would reduce the number of
doses, owner stress, and duration of
treatment. Such systems include
subcutaneous implant systems, injection-
controlled release systems, topical creams
that can be placed on the ears, eye and
mouth inserts, and vaginal inserts.
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